Research Methods in Sport Management
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Filled with helpful figures and charts, this first-of-its-kind textbook is a vital resource for students, teachers, and industry professionals.
Authors Ming Li, Brenda Pitts, and Jerome Quarterman are all expert researchers in their areas of specialization and have written extensively in both books and journals. Their current roles in teaching college-level courses have allowed them to understand exactly how to tailor research methods to the topic of sport management and to compile the important information presented in Research Methods in Sport Management.
Unique Features of Research Methods in Sport Management
- Sound guidelines to learning and building knowledge and skills in doing research
- Practical and useful examples from the real world of sport business
- An organized presentation of research methods from the most basic to the complex
- Inclusion of timely issues of ethics in research practice and reporting
- Emphasis on sound decision making in research practice
- A research process model that guides from question development through to research method and application
- Study questions and learning activities in each chapter
- 125 figures, charts, and tables
Contents
Preface................................................................................................................................................ xix
Chapter 1... Introduction to Sport Management Research........................................................................... 1
Chapter 2... The Research Process in Sport Management.......................................................................... 17
Chapter 3... Interpretation of Qualitative Research in Sport Management Studies........................................ 33
Chapter 4... Case Study Research in Sport Management........................................................................... 43
Chapter 5... The Interview.................................................................................................................... 67
Chapter 6... Focus Group Research........................................................................................................ 81
Chapter 7... Observation Research......................................................................................................... 93
Chapter 8... Secondary Data................................................................................................................ 107
Chapter 9... Survey Research.............................................................................................................. 121
Chapter 10... Experimental Research..................................................................................................... 139
Chapter 11... Ethics in Sport Management Research and Publications........................................................ 155
Chapter 12... Measurement and Scaling in Sport Management Studies....................................................... 171
Chapter 13... Attitude Measurement....................................................................................................... 187
Chapter 14... Questionnaire Design........................................................................................................ 205
Chapter 15... Sampling Methods and Procedures in Sport Management Research........................................ 229
Chapter 16... Data Editing, Coding, and Transforming............................................................................. 243
Chapter 17... Introduction to Statistical Data Analysis in Sport Management Research................................ 259
Chapter 18... Descriptive Statistics in Sport Management Research........................................................... 273
Chapter 19... Statistical Testing of Differences........................................................................................ 289
Chapter 20... Multivariate Data Analysis................................................................................................ 305
Chapter 21... Communicating Research Results:...................................................................................... 323
Written Report and Oral Presentations
Index.................................................................................................................................................. 345
About the Authors................................................................................................................................ 357
Chapter 1—Introduction to Sport Management Research.................................... 1
Nature and Scope of Sport Management Research...................................................................................... 3
Research in Our Daily Lives............................................................................................................. 3
Sport Management Research Defined................................................................................................ 4
Research for the Body of Knowledge in Sport Management......................................................................... 4
Value of Research for Students in Sport Management.......................................................................... 4
Value of Research for the Practice of Sport Management..................................................................... 5
Characteristics of Sport Management Research................................................................................... 5
Major Purposes of Sport Management Research................................................................................. 6
Philosophical Approaches to Sport Management Research............................................................................ 7
Positivist Paradigm.......................................................................................................................... 7
Naturalist Paradigm......................................................................................................................... 8
Major Approaches to Sport Management Research..................................................................................... 9
Basic and Applied Research in Sport Management............................................................................... 9
Quantitative and Qualitative Research in Sport Management............................................................. 10
Exploratory, Descriptive, and Causal Research in Sport Management................................................. 11
The Evolution and Future of Sport Management Research........................................................................ 12
Summary.............................................................................................................................................. 13
Chapter 2—The Research Process in Sport Management................................ 17
Decision Making and Related Variables.................................................................................................... 19
Certainty versus Uncertainty.......................................................................................................... 19
Ambiguity.................................................................................................................................... 20
The Research Process in Sport Management.............................................................................................. 20
Step 1: Identify the Problem or Question.......................................................................................... 20
Step 2: Define the Problem or Question........................................................................................... 21
Step 3: Explore for Answers........................................................................................................... 22
Step 4: Define Research Objectives.................................................................................................. 22
Step 5: Determine the Research Design............................................................................................ 23
Qualitative Research Methods in Sport Management................................................................. 23
Case Study.................................................................................................................... 23
Interviews..................................................................................................................... 24
Focus Group................................................................................................................. 24
Observation................................................................................................................... 24
Quantitative Research Methods in Sport Management.................................................................. 25
Secondary Data............................................................................................................. 25
Surveys........................................................................................................................ 25
Experiment................................................................................................................... 26
Step 6: Conduct Data Collection...................................................................................................... 26
Step 7: Analyze the Data................................................................................................................ 27
Step 8: Report the Results............................................................................................................... 27
The Research Proposal............................................................................................................................ 27
Summary.............................................................................................................................................. 30
Chapter 3—Interpretation of Qualitative Research
in Sport Management Studies........................................................................................... 33
Qualitative Research Defined.................................................................................................................. 35
Qualitative Research versus Quantitative Research...................................................................................... 36
The Choice of a Qualitative Research Approach................................................................................ 36
The Choice of a Quantitative Research Approach............................................................................... 38
Data Collection Techniques of Qualitative Research................................................................................... 38
Trustworthiness of Qualitative Research Design......................................................................................... 38
Combining Qualitative and Quantitative Research...................................................................................... 38
Future Directions and Publications of Qualitative Research in the................................................................ 39
Field of Sport Management and Sport Marketing
Summary.............................................................................................................................................. 41
Chapter 4—Case Study Research in Sport Management.................................... 43
Case Study as a Research Design: Historical Context.................................................................................. 45
Case Study Defined................................................................................................................................ 46
Case Study as a Research Design in Sport Management.............................................................................. 48
Building Theory from Case Study Research.............................................................................................. 48
What Is a Theory?.......................................................................................................................... 48
Types of Theories.......................................................................................................................... 49
Theory Building............................................................................................................................ 49
Types of Case Studies............................................................................................................................. 50
Designing a Case Study.......................................................................................................................... 53
Evaluating Case Study Research Designs.................................................................................................. 55
Dependability................................................................................................................................ 55
Credibility.................................................................................................................................... 56
Conducting Case Studies......................................................................................................................... 56
Preparing for Data Collection.......................................................................................................... 58
Arrangements for the Study............................................................................................................ 58
Case Selection and Conducting a Pilot Study.................................................................................... 59
Collecting the Evidence.................................................................................................................. 59
Principles of Case Study Data Collection.......................................................................................... 59
Triangulation/Crystallization................................................................................................... 59
Case Study Database.............................................................................................................. 60
Chain of Evidence................................................................................................................. 60
Case Study Analysis............................................................................................................................... 61
Presenting a Case Study.......................................................................................................................... 62
Evaluating the Quality of Case Study Reports........................................................................................... 63
Concerns with Case Study Research......................................................................................................... 63
Summary.............................................................................................................................................. 63
Chapter 5—The Interview..................................................................................................... 67
The Nature of the Interview as a Qualitative Research Technique................................................................. 69
Objectives of the Interview..................................................................................................................... 69
Factors Affecting the Use of Interviews.................................................................................................... 70
Types and Formats of Interviews: In-Person, Telephone, Online................................................................. 70
Open-ended Question Format.......................................................................................................... 71
Fill-in-the-Blank Question Format................................................................................................... 71
Binary Question Format................................................................................................................. 72
Scaled-Response Question Format................................................................................................... 72
Unscaled-Response Question Format................................................................................................ 73
Where to Conduct Interviews.................................................................................................................. 74
Residence...................................................................................................................................... 75
Street........................................................................................................................................... 75
Mall............................................................................................................................................. 75
Venue........................................................................................................................................... 75
Office for Interviews...................................................................................................................... 75
The Interviewer’s Role........................................................................................................................... 75
Training the Interviewer................................................................................................................. 77
Conducting the Interview........................................................................................................................ 77
Advantages of the Interview Method........................................................................................................ 78
Disadvantages of the Interview Method.................................................................................................... 78
Increased Cost............................................................................................................................... 78
Increased Time.............................................................................................................................. 78
Decreased Sample Size................................................................................................................... 78
Increased Organization Time........................................................................................................... 78
Geographic Limitations.................................................................................................................. 78
Summary.............................................................................................................................................. 78
Chapter 6—Focus Group Research................................................................................. 81
The Nature of Focus Groups as a Qualitative Research Technique in Sport Management................................ 83
Objectives of Focus Group Research................................................................................................ 83
Types of Focus Groups................................................................................................................... 84
Stand-Alone Method.............................................................................................................. 84
Survey Supplement................................................................................................................ 84
Multiple Method Design......................................................................................................... 84
Online Focus Group Methods.................................................................................................. 84
Selecting Focus Group Participants.................................................................................................. 85
Recruiting Focus Group Participants................................................................................................ 85
The Number of Groups or Sessions.................................................................................................. 85
A Place to Stage the Focus Group Session........................................................................................ 86
The Focus Group Moderator........................................................................................................... 86
The Focus Group Process................................................................................................................ 86
Advantages and Disadvantages of the Focus Group Method of Research....................................................... 89
A Focus Group Case in Sport Management............................................................................................... 89
Summary.............................................................................................................................................. 90
Chapter 7—Observation Research................................................................................... 93
The Nature of Observation...................................................................................................................... 95
Characteristics of Observation as a Research Data Collection Technique............................................... 95
Advantages and Disadvantages........................................................................................................ 95
Objectives of Observation....................................................................................................................... 97
Capturing Human Behavior in Real Time......................................................................................... 97
Providing Visual Description.......................................................................................................... 97
Providing Exploratory Information.................................................................................................. 98
Conditions for Using Observations........................................................................................................... 98
Problem Itself............................................................................................................................... 98
Researcher’s Skills and Characteristics............................................................................................. 98
Characteristics of the Subjects......................................................................................................... 98
Types of Observation............................................................................................................................. 99
Participant and Nonparticipant Observation..................................................................................... 100
Obtrusive and Unobtrusive Observation.......................................................................................... 100
Observation in Natural or Contrived Settings.................................................................................. 101
Disguised and Non-disguised Observation....................................................................................... 101
Structured and Unstructured Observation........................................................................................ 101
Direct and Indirect Observation..................................................................................................... 101
Designing and Conducting an Observational Study.................................................................................. 101
Definition of Observational Problems and Variables........................................................................ 101
Selecting an Observation Method................................................................................................... 102
Training Observers....................................................................................................................... 103
Conducting and Recording Observation.......................................................................................... 103
Interpreting the Results of Observation........................................................................................... 103
Ethnography and Observation................................................................................................................ 103
Using Ethnography Research Techniques in Sport Management: A Case Analysis........................................ 104
Summary............................................................................................................................................ 104
Chapter 8—Secondary Data.............................................................................................................................. 107
The Nature of Secondary Data in Sport Management Research.................................................................. 109
Sources of Secondary Data.................................................................................................................... 111
Internal Records of and Data Released by a Public Organization........................................................ 113
Internal Data Released by a Private Trade Organization.................................................................... 113
Internal Data from a Private Firm.................................................................................................. 114
Data from Previous Surveys.......................................................................................................... 114
Previously Published Research....................................................................................................... 114
Publications Released by Government Agencies............................................................................... 114
Advantages of Secondary Data.............................................................................................................. 114
Saving Time and Money............................................................................................................... 114
Better Research Design................................................................................................................. 115
Availability................................................................................................................................. 115
Limitations of Secondary Data............................................................................................................... 115
Differences in Definitions............................................................................................................. 115
Lack of Availability..................................................................................................................... 115
Lack of Accuracy......................................................................................................................... 115
Age of Secondary Data................................................................................................................. 116
Process of Secondary Data Research....................................................................................................... 116
Defining the Data Needed............................................................................................................. 116
Locating the Data......................................................................................................................... 116
Evaluating the Data...................................................................................................................... 116
Gathering and Verifying the Data.................................................................................................. 117
A Case in Sport Management Research Using Secondary Data.................................................................. 117
Summary............................................................................................................................................ 117
Chapter 9—Survey Research............................................................................................ 121
The Nature of Survey Research: An Introduction..................................................................................... 123
Worldwide and Local Work to Improve Survey Methods.................................................................. 124
What Is a Survey?........................................................................................................................ 124
Types of Survey Research Techniques.................................................................................................... 126
The Interview as a Survey Technique............................................................................................. 126
The Telephone Interview Technique....................................................................................... 127
The Personal Interview Technique.......................................................................................... 128
Self-administered Survey Technique.............................................................................................. 128
Mail Surveys....................................................................................................................... 128
Respondent Self-selected Surveys.......................................................................................... 130
Surveys Administered to a Group.......................................................................................... 131
Online Surveys.................................................................................................................... 131
Factors Affecting the Choice of Particular Survey Methods...................................................................... 132
Population Issues......................................................................................................................... 132
Sampling Issues........................................................................................................................... 132
Content Issues.............................................................................................................................. 132
Bias Issues................................................................................................................................... 133
Administrative Issues.................................................................................................................... 133
Types of Errors in Survey Research....................................................................................................... 133
Sampling Errors.......................................................................................................................... 133
Nonresponse Error....................................................................................................................... 134
Response Error............................................................................................................................ 134
Designing Survey Research................................................................................................................... 135
A Survey Research Case in Sport Management........................................................................................ 135
Summary............................................................................................................................................ 135
Chapter 10—Experimental Research........................................................................... 139
Nature of Experimental Research........................................................................................................... 141
Experimentation: Basic Issues................................................................................................................ 141
Experimental Validity.......................................................................................................................... 142
Internal Validity Defined.............................................................................................................. 142
Factors That Jeopardize Internal Validity........................................................................................ 143
External Validity Defined............................................................................................................. 144
Factors That Jeopardize External Validity....................................................................................... 145
Selected Experimental Designs.............................................................................................................. 145
Three Preexperimental Designs...................................................................................................... 146
The One-Shot Case Study..................................................................................................... 146
One-Group Pretest and Posttest Design................................................................................... 146
The Static Group Comparison................................................................................................ 147
Three True Experimental Designs.................................................................................................. 147
The Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design.............................................................................. 148
The Posttest-Only Control Group Design................................................................................ 149
The Soloman Four-Group Design.......................................................................................... 149
Quasi-Experimental Designs.......................................................................................................... 149
Time-Series Design.............................................................................................................. 150
Multiple Time-Series Design................................................................................................. 150
Nonequivalent Control Group Design..................................................................................... 150
An Example of Experimental Research in Sport Management................................................................... 151
Why Are Experiments Not Used More Often in Sport Management Research?............................................ 152
Ethical Issues in Experimental Research................................................................................................. 152
Summary............................................................................................................................................ 152
Chapter 11—Ethics in Sport Management Research
and Publications...................................................................................................................... 155
The Nature and Scope of Ethics............................................................................................................. 157
Philosophical Paradigms of Ethical Research................................................................................... 157
Historical Events Influencing the Development of Research Practices of Human Subjects.................... 158
The Development of Ethical Codes of Conduct for Research on Human Subjects................................ 158
The Nuremberg Codes.......................................................................................................... 158
The Helsinki Declaration of 1964........................................................................................... 159
The Belmont Report............................................................................................................. 159
A Review of Ethical Principles.............................................................................................................. 160
Autonomy................................................................................................................................... 160
Beneficence................................................................................................................................. 160
Nonmaleficence........................................................................................................................... 160
Justice........................................................................................................................................ 160
Ways to Ensure That Research Is Ethical................................................................................................ 160
Following the Guidelines of Professional Associations..................................................................... 160
Obtaining Institutional Review Board Approval............................................................................... 161
Guidelines and Procedures for Protecting Human Rights in Sport Management Research............................. 163
Assurance of Protecting Study Participants from Harm.................................................................... 163
Assurance of Protecting the Study Participant’s Rights of Confidentiality........................................... 163
Assurance of Protecting the Study Participant’s Rights of Self-Determination..................................... 163
Assurance of Protecting the Study Participant’s Rights of Full Disclosure.......................................... 164
Debriefing the Participants about the Results of a Study..................................................................... 164
Assurance of Protecting the Study Participant’s Rights of Anonymity................................................ 164
Assurance of Protecting the Study Participant’s Rights to Volunteer.................................................. 164
Assurance of Protecting the Study Participant’s Rights of Privacy..................................................... 164
Assurance of Portecting the Study Participant’s Rights of Withdrawal............................................... 164
Obtaining Informed Consent................................................................................................................. 165
An Example of IRB Approval in Sport Management Studies.................................................................... 167
Summary............................................................................................................................................ 168
Chapter 12—Measurement and Scaling
in Sport Management Studies......................................................................................... 169
Classical Levels of Measurement............................................................................................................ 173
The Nominal Level of Measurement.............................................................................................. 173
The Ordinal Level of Measurement............................................................................................... 174
The Interval Level of Measurement............................................................................................... 175
The Ratio Level of Measurement.................................................................................................... 175
Measurement Criteria in Sport Management Research............................................................................. 175
Major Dimensions of Instrument Reliability................................................................................... 176
Nature of Reliability............................................................................................................ 176
Interpretation of Reliability Coefficient Correlation................................................................ 177
Commonly Used Correlation Indexes..................................................................................... 177
Reliability as Stability.......................................................................................................... 177
Reliability as Equivalence..................................................................................................... 177
Internal Consistency............................................................................................................. 178
Validity as a Measurement Criterion in Sport Management Research................................................. 178
Judgment Validity............................................................................................................... 180
Criterion-related Validity..................................................................................................... 181
Construct-related Validity.................................................................................................... 182
Relationships between Reliability and Validity........................................................................................ 183
A Case in Sport Management................................................................................................................ 183
Summary............................................................................................................................................ 184
Chapter 13—Attitude Measurement.......................................................................... 187
Nature of Attitude............................................................................................................................... 189
Components of Attitude............................................................................................................... 189
The Cognitive Component of Attitude................................................................................... 190
The Affective Component of Attitude..................................................................................... 190
The Behavioral Component of Attitude.................................................................................. 190
Measurement Techniques in Attitude Research................................................................................ 190
Rating................................................................................................................................. 190
Ranking.............................................................................................................................. 191
Techniques of Attitude Measurement—The Affective Component.............................................................. 191
Non-comparative Scales............................................................................................................... 191
Category Scales................................................................................................................... 191
Graphic Rating Scales.......................................................................................................... 194
Semantic Differential Scale................................................................................................... 195
The Likert Scale.................................................................................................................. 196
The Staple Scale.................................................................................................................. 198
Comparative Scales...................................................................................................................... 199
Rank-order Scales................................................................................................................ 199
The Paired Comparison Scale................................................................................................ 199
The Constant Sum Scale....................................................................................................... 199
Techniques of Attitude Measurement—Behavioral Component................................................................. 200
Selection of an Attitude Measurement Scale............................................................................................ 200
Summary............................................................................................................................................ 203
Chapter 14—Questionnaire Design............................................................................... 205
The Questionnaire Development Process................................................................................................. 207
Defining the Objectives of the Survey Research............................................................................... 208
Determining the Formats of Questioning........................................................................................ 208
Open-ended Questions.......................................................................................................... 209
Closed-ended Questions........................................................................................................ 209
Writing the Questions................................................................................................................... 210
Question and Answer Choice Order................................................................................................ 214
Dealing with “Don’t Know” or “Not Applicable” Answer Choices..................................................... 215
Reviewing the Questionnaire......................................................................................................... 216
Pretesting the Questionnaire.......................................................................................................... 216
Finalizing the Questionnaire.......................................................................................................... 217
Other Practical Issues Related to Questionnaire Design............................................................................. 217
How Long Should the Questionnaire Be?........................................................................................ 217
The Order of the Questions........................................................................................................... 217
Ways to Increase the Response Rate............................................................................................... 218
The Layout of a Questionnaire....................................................................................................... 219
Tips for Designing Web-based Questionnaires................................................................................. 220
Web Questionnaire Design.................................................................................................... 220
Online Survey Software........................................................................................................ 220
Summary............................................................................................................................................ 222
Chapter 15—Sampling Methods and Procedures
in Sport Management Research...................................................................................... 229
Nature of Population and Samples......................................................................................................... 231
Basic Approaches to Sampling............................................................................................................... 233
Nonprobability Sampling.............................................................................................................. 233
Probability Sampling.................................................................................................................... 233
Convenience Sampling................................................................................................................. 233
Quota Sampling........................................................................................................................... 234
Purposive or Judgmental Sampling................................................................................................ 234
Probability Sampling Procedures........................................................................................................... 234
Simple Random Sampling............................................................................................................. 235
Stratified Random Sampling......................................................................................................... 236
Systematic Random Sampling....................................................................................................... 236
Random Cluster Sampling............................................................................................................. 237
Determining the Sample Size................................................................................................................ 237
Appropriateness of Sampling Design: Practical Pointers........................................................................... 238
The Sampling Process........................................................................................................................... 238
Summary............................................................................................................................................ 238
Chapter 16—Data Editing, Coding, and Transforming....................................... 243
An Overview of the Stages of Data Preparation and Analysis.................................................................... 245
Validiting.................................................................................................................................... 245
Editing....................................................................................................................................... 245
Legibility of Entries............................................................................................................. 246
Completeness of Entries........................................................................................................ 246
Consistency of Entries.......................................................................................................... 246
Accuracy of Entries.............................................................................................................. 246
Missing by Logic................................................................................................................. 246
Missing by Design................................................................................................................ 246
Item Omission..................................................................................................................... 247
Refusal to Respond............................................................................................................... 247
Don’t Know........................................................................................................................ 247
Inadequate Response............................................................................................................. 248
Coding........................................................................................................................................ 251
Data Entry and Analysis............................................................................................................... 251
Using Content Analysis on Coding Open-ended Questions........................................................................ 252
Steps to Execute a Content Analysis............................................................................................... 253
Step 1: Determination of Objectives....................................................................................... 253
Step 2: Definition of Terms of Interest................................................................................... 253
Step 3: Identification of the Unit of Analysis.......................................................................... 254
Step 4: Selection of a Sampling Plan...................................................................................... 254
Step 5: Data Recording and Analysis...................................................................................... 254
Advantages and Disadvantages of Content Analysis.......................................................................... 254
A Content Analysis Case............................................................................................................... 254
Summary............................................................................................................................................ 255
Chapter 17—Introduction to Statistical Data Analysis
in Sport Management Research...................................................................................... 259
Nature of Statistical Analysis................................................................................................................. 261
Descriptive Statistics and Inferential Statistics................................................................................. 261
Parametric Statistics and Nonparametric Statistics............................................................................ 262
Independent and Dependent Variables.................................................................................................... 262
Defining the Independent and Dependent Variables for Non-experimental Designs.............................. 264
The Nature and Scope of Hypothesis and Hypothesis Testing.................................................................... 265
The Nature and Scope of Research Questions.......................................................................................... 267
Difference Questions.................................................................................................................... 267
Relationship Questions.................................................................................................................. 267
The Concept of Statistical Significance................................................................................................... 268
An Understanding of Type I and Type II Errors........................................................................................ 269
Summary............................................................................................................................................ 270
Chapter 18—Descriptive Statistics in Sport
Management Research......................................................................................................... 273
Major Approaches for Presenting and Measuring Relationship of Descriptive Statistical Data....................... 275
Describing Statistical Data by Frequency Distributions..................................................................... 275
Describing Data by Graphic Presentations....................................................................................... 277
Bar Graph........................................................................................................................... 277
Histogram........................................................................................................................... 278
Frequency Polygon.............................................................................................................. 278
Pie Chart............................................................................................................................. 278
Describing Data by Measures of Central Tendency........................................................................... 279
Mean.................................................................................................................................. 279
Median............................................................................................................................... 280
Mode.................................................................................................................................. 280
Describing Data by Measures of Variability.................................................................................... 280
Range................................................................................................................................. 280
Variance............................................................................................................................. 280
Standard Deviation............................................................................................................... 280
Describing Data by Measures of Relative Proportion........................................................................ 281
Percentile............................................................................................................................ 281
Percentile Range.................................................................................................................. 281
Measuring Relationships of Data by Correlational Statistical Techniques.................................................... 281
Correlational Coefficients............................................................................................................. 282
Interpretation of Correlation Coefficients in Sport Management Research................................... 282
Statistical Techniques for Determining Correlations......................................................................... 283
The Pearson Product-Moment Correlation............................................................................... 283
Spearman’s Rank Order Correlation....................................................................................... 283
Summary............................................................................................................................................ 284
Chapter 19—Statistical Testing of Differences.............................................. 289
Parametric Statistical Techniques........................................................................................................... 291
Ways to Subdivide Parametric Statistical Techniques....................................................................... 291
The T-test as a Parametric Statistical Technique............................................................................... 292
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) as a Parametric Statistical Technique................................................ 294
One-way ANOVA....................................................................................................................................................... 294
Two-way ANOVA................................................................................................................ 295
Post Hoc Tests of Statistical Significance for ANOVA.............................................................................................. 295
Z-test.......................................................................................................................................... 295
Nonparametric Statistical Techniques..................................................................................................... 296
Common Nonparametric Techniques.............................................................................................. 296
Chi Square (c2) as a Nonparametric Statistical Technique.................................................................. 296
Mann-Whitney U-test as a Nonparametric Statistical Technique......................................................... 299
Kruskal-Wallis Test as a Nonparametric Statistical Technique............................................................ 300
Fisher’s Exact Test as a Nonparametric Statistical Technique.............................................................. 301
Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test............................................................................................................................................. 301
Summary............................................................................................................................................ 302
Chapter 20—Multivariate Data Analysis...................................................................... 305
Classification of Multivariate Analysis Techniques................................................................................... 307
Techniques of Dependence Analysis....................................................................................................... 307
Multiple Regression Analysis......................................................................................................... 309
Logistic Regression Analysis................................................................................................. 309
Hierarchical Linear Regression Analysis................................................................................. 310
Discriminate Analysis........................................................................................................... 311
MANOVA.................................................................................................................................. 312
Conjoint Analysis......................................................................................................................... 313
Techniques of Interdependence Analysis................................................................................................. 313
Cluster Analysis........................................................................................................................... 313
K-means Clustering.............................................................................................................. 314
Two-step Clustering.............................................................................................................. 315
Factor Analysis............................................................................................................................ 315
Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA)........................................................................................ 317
Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA)..................................................................................... 317
A Case Using Multivariate Analysis Techniques in Sport Management Research.......................................... 318
Summary............................................................................................................................................ 319
Chapter 21—Communicating Research Results:
Written Report and Oral Presentations....................................................................... 323
Communicating Research Results........................................................................................................... 325
Factors Affecting the Selection of a Communication Method............................................................ 325
Types of Reports.......................................................................................................................... 326
Briefing.............................................................................................................................. 327
Short Report........................................................................................................................ 327
Long Report........................................................................................................................ 328
Categories of Written Reports........................................................................................................ 328
Components of the Research Report....................................................................................................... 328
Preface/Foreword......................................................................................................................... 329
Cover Letter................................................................................................................................ 329
Title Page.................................................................................................................................... 329
Executive Summary..................................................................................................................... 329
Abstract...................................................................................................................................... 330
Introduction................................................................................................................................ 332
Statement of Problem........................................................................................................... 332
Purpose of Research............................................................................................................. 332
Research Objectives.............................................................................................................. 332
Review of Literature..................................................................................................................... 332
Exploration for Information.................................................................................................. 332
Analysis of Existing Literature.............................................................................................. 333
Methodology............................................................................................................................... 333
Sampling Design or Subjects................................................................................................. 333
Research Design................................................................................................................... 333
Data Collection Method........................................................................................................ 333
Data Analysis Method........................................................................................................... 334
Limitations.......................................................................................................................... 334
The Concluding Section................................................................................................................ 334
Findings/Results................................................................................................................... 334
Conclusions and Discussion................................................................................................... 334
Recommendations................................................................................................................ 334
References................................................................................................................................... 335
Tables, Figures, and Charts........................................................................................................... 335
Appendix/Exhibits....................................................................................................................... 335
Thesis and Dissertation Format versus Journal Article or Business Report Format....................................... 335
Preparing Poster and Oral Presentations.................................................................................................. 335
The Poster Presentation Report...................................................................................................... 335
The Oral Presentation................................................................................................................... 335
Preparation of the Oral Presentation....................................................................................... 336
Delivery and Performance..................................................................................................... 336
Effective Presentation with Graphics: Tables, Charts, Figures, and More.................................................... 336
Text Presentation.......................................................................................................................... 336
Tables, Charts, and Figures........................................................................................................... 337
Successful Presentation with Bias-Free Language..................................................................................... 339
An Introduction to Writing Style Handbooks.......................................................................................... 339
The American Psychological Association Publication Guidelines....................................................... 339
The MLA Style of Writing............................................................................................................ 340
The Chicago Manual of Style........................................................................................................ 341
Summary............................................................................................................................................ 342